DNA Structure Essays (961 words) - Biology, Genetics,

DNA Structure The "Thread of Life", is deoxyribonucleic acid, also known as DNA. This molecule which is the bases of life, is spiral shaped and found in the nucleus of cells. DNA has the genetic code for bodies, controls development of embryo's, and is able to repair damage caused to itself. All DNA molecules have linked units called nucleotides. These nucleotides have sub-units that have 5 carbon sugars that are called deoxyribose. DNA is composed of four bases called adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. These are some of the main principles of DNA. What we know today about structure of DNA begins in 1868 when a Swiss biologist Friedrich Miescher did the first experiments on the nuclei of cells. Miescher used the nuclei of pus cells from old medical bandages. In these pus cells he found What We know today about structure of DNA begins in 1868 when a Swiss biologist Friedrich Miescher did the first experiments on the nuclei of cells. Miescher used the nuclei of pus cells from old medical bandages. In these pus cells he found phosphorus with a substance he called nuclein. This nuclein has an acidic portion which is classified as DNA. Another scientist Thomas Hunt Morgan made an important discovery around 1900. He observed that certain characteristics were inherited quickly through numerous generations of fruit flies. So he made the conclusion that these genes must be near one another on the chromosome. In 1943 Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, three scientists working in the Rockefeller institute, preformed an experiment by taking DNA from a virulent (disease-causing) strain of Streptococcus pneumonae and transformed a non-virulent (inactive) form back to a virulent form. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty discovered from their experiments that DNA carried a virulent message that can be transferred into the recipient of non-virulent cells. This proved that DNA was a carrier of genetic information. An important discovery of the 1940's was the discovery by Erwin Chargaff who established that "heredity's alphabet" which are the four bases adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine(C) can occur in different orders in different organisms. In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick put forth a radical new idea about DNA. Their idea suggested that the DNA molecule was made up of two helical chains instead of three intertwined chains as previously thought. Today we have a strong knowledge of DNA and scientists are applying that knowledge to a three billion dollar project called the human genome project. This project will examine the structure of human DNA and map out every single gene in the human body and will take 15 years. The strong knowledge that we have of DNA allows the scientist to map out the genes at about 1 to 2 per day. This may not seem to be a very fast rate but scientists have already found the genes that cause diseases such as Hunnington's, Lou Gerhig's, and the "Bubble-Boy" disease. Another way that we use our strong knowledge of DNA is in criminal identification. This plays a major role in today's society. Because each person's DNA is different (except in identical twins) police officers can take blood or semen samples from a crime scene and take them to the lab for identification. This can insure the guilt or innocence of a suspect. An example of this is the O.J. Simpson case where investigators tried to match O.J.'s DNA to the DNA at the scene of the crime. Another way scientists apply their knowledge of DNA today is by using special enzymes called restriction enzymes that cut through the phosphate of DNA and these cut ends are called "sticky ends" because they easily attract other tails from other DNA. Scientist use these restriction enzymes for genetic engineering by removing a gene from one organism to another. In the future DNA has great possibilities for the betterment of mankind and also the detriment. The most obvious and controversial possibility would be the cloning of humans. Scientists have already cloned sheep and other such organisms but have yet to take the step for cloning a human even though the technology is in place, the ethics of this may not be. The method to arrive at is quite simple. The embryo of an organism is removed in the early development stage from the uterus then split and each separate part is placed in a surrogate uterus. Scientist are trying to clone organisms beyond the early embryonic stages, making for a much more difficult challenge. In 1996 Scottish scientists were able to clone a sheep, Dolly,

Causes of Civil War in the USA

Causes of Civil War in the USA Introduction Civil war is the hostility between opposing political factions of the same country or within a community (Sammis 1). Such hostilities are usually very bitter and the consequences are dire. It results in deaths, despair and bitter wounds.Many children are rendered destitute, many people become disabled, women are raped and many men loose lives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Causes of Civil War in the USA specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The American civil war lasted from 1861 to 1865 between the North and South. The south wanted to secede from the North because of seemingly irreconcilable differences. During this period, many people were killed, hundreds of thousands displaced, children exposed to horrific scenes and many got physical injuries. What was left behind was a grieving population with thousands mourning the deaths of their loved ones, feeling helpless and downtrodden. It is estimated that dur ing this very battle, there were over 600,000 casualties (Stoker 115). Discussed below were the causes of the civil war in the United States America. Election of Abraham Lincoln as the President When Abraham Lincoln was in 1860 elected as the president of the United States of America, Some Southern states immediately declared reasons for separation. South Carolina had even unilaterally declared their secession before election (Selcer 99). This was followed by other states such as Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. Lincoln was a moderate and was viewed by the south as a person to abolish slavery and always in favor of Northern states Slavery The land that was obtained from Louisiana Purchase and that gained from the Mexican war elicited many questions. This occurred at a time when America was greatly expanding its territories. There were different opinions as to whether the newly admitted states should be slave free or not. A compromise was reached in 1820 b anning slavery in the states which were formerly Louisiana Purchase. Conflict arose during the Mexican war, the question being what would happen to the new states upon the victory of the US in the war (Selcer 83). There was much debate and a compromise was reached in 1950 to balance slave free States in the North and South. The Kansas-Nebraska act of 1854 further worsened tensions. The act sought to create two new boundaries that would given the states freedom to choose between slavery and antislavery. This was followed by the people of Missouri moving into state of Kansas to force it to be slave state resulting in violence (Sammis 11).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The fighting that occurred is famously known as the ‘Bleeding Kansas’, the violence further extended to the senate whereby the senator from the south who was a proponent of slavery fought that from t he North who opposed the act. Socio Economic Differences The Southern economy was agricultural depending a lot on cotton. With the invention of a machine that eased the separation of seeds from cotton made cotton very profitable and this even attracted more South farmers to shift from planting other crops to cotton. Growing of more cotton meant that a lot of cheap labor was inevitably necessary. The source of this labor could only be slaves. Therefore, the south was so emotionally attached to slaves such that any mention of antislavery from the North triggered serious confrontations. Their way of living was rural based so that they could be near to their farms and keep close watch on the slave laborers. They maintained a lot of social order within their living systems and different social classes existed. In contrast the economy of the northern people was industrial based. Their sources of raw materials were from their rival South (Stoker 133). Their way of live was city based where by people of different cultures and social lived and worked together in the same environment and conditions. The wide disparities amongst these people in geographical location, economy and social life created unfavorable attitude of rivalry towards each other. When the war finally broke out, they had the basis to fight each other to settle deeply rooted scores. Battle between the States and Federal Rights After revolution, there arose two opposing sides. There were those who wanted for more states rights and those who argued that the federal government was to have more power. The states who were in favor organized themselves after the American Revolution and formed a government. This federal government was formed under a constitutional convention forming ineffective structures of governance. This led to the Pro Federal government to write a constitution secretly without the knowledge of the proponents of states (Selcer 92).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on C auses of Civil War in the USA specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The consequences were the feeling by many that the rights of states to act on their own were disregarded. The states therefore demanded the nullification of the constitution but the Federal government could not accept it. The staunch proponents of states’ rights strongly called for the cancellation of it but in vain. This led to states feeling that they are not given the respect they deserve and that their views were ignored. They therefore called for secession which was the genesis of the conflict that degenerated to civil war. Uprising of Slavery Abolition Movement The Northerners rose to be against slavery, slave holders and forced labor. They become increasingly determined to see to it that the inhumane treatment of other human beings came to an end. As a result, they gained more and more support and sympathizers. Their effort received a major boost with the passage of fugitive slave act. Under this act, those who had fugitive slaves; both in slave and non slave states were obliged to take responsibility and accountability of their deeds (Sammis 14). This went against the wishes of the Southerners who felt they were the target of the legislation. Conclusion The US civil war was the deadliest in the 19th century, many lives were lost, property destroyed and sharp differences existed. Despite all these, United States of America have reconciled her people. Since then they have embraced the spirit of togetherness, embraced each other and have learnt to tolerate each other’s views. They have since then nurtured their democracy to be the best and most admired in the world. The whole world should learn from the USA for it to be a better place for everyone. War should not be a reminder or a lesson to humanity. Sammis, Kathy. Focus on U.S History: The Era of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Walch Publishing, 1997: pp 1-20Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Selcer, F. Richard. Civil War America, 1875 to 1875. Infobase Publishing, 2006: pp 77- 102 Stoker, J. Donald. The Grand design: Strategy and the U.S Civil War. Oxford University Press, 2010: pp 122-150

Consumer Behaviour Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Consumer Behaviour - Assignment Example A synopsis of their responses is identified in the following table. Influencing Factors Respondent 1 Respondent 2 Respondent 3 Respondent 4 Name Stuart Jane Mark Danial Age 23 35 31 28 Perception about Body cosmetics Thinks that body cosmetics are important part of personal hygiene Thinks that body cosmetics have become a necessity Thinks that cosmetics ultimately worsen the body conditions Thinks that body cosmetics are highly important Perception about Body Lotion Thinks that they have become an important part of cosmetics Thinks that creams and shower gel can do the job Thinks that normal soaps and massage oils are the best Would certainly like to own one Description of their self Considers himself as an early adopter of new products Is not very brand loyal; Will buy any product offered at competitive price Believes in Tried and tested products Is always anxious to update his fashion statement Social Influence in Product purchase decisions He would opt for personal investigation r ather than social groups Prefers to take the help from his peers before purchasing a decision. Believes that social pressures are not that important. Individuality matters more Wants to stand out from his peers in terms of the products he uses Influence of Cultural Background Thinks that culture stops him from being an early adopter Considers that culture defines the limits to his purchase decisions Considers that Culture is most important in purchase decisions Has no consideration for culture. Can opt for any product if it suits his needs Psychological Factors Thinks that the promotions is most important in motivating consumers to buy the product Thinks that the texture of the product and its physical layout is most important Thinks that the most important factor is the utility that the product provides Thinks that the linkage between consumer need and the utility of the product can motivate the customer to buy Recommendations for Aqua Mist Considers the product to be reliable beca use of the brand name; wants to buy the product immediately Considers that although the product is good, more work should be done on the layout of the lotion bottle and the logo Won’t buy the product as it does not offer any think new in his opinion. Wants to buy the product if it is readily available in the market and hype for the lotion Is created. Considering the responses provided by the respondents and evaluating the characteristics of Aqua Mist and the related product line of Lush Cosmetics, we can easily identify that the prospects of this product are great. If the company launches the product with a clear reference to the brand and clearly communicates the core characteristics of the body lotion, the customers will be eager to buy the product (Kardes, 2011). CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: In the introduction of the report we clearly identified that the Lush cosmetics is a well established company which has its operations running in several countries and therefore, i t has the privilege of enjoying a strong brand name and some loyal consumer base. We then identified the product line expansion strategy of the company in terms of launching a new product called Aqua Mist and related product categories. When considering the decisions like product launch, it is important that a thorough research on the market conditions and the consumers of the products is made and to accomplish the task we identified some of the factors that

Funding a restuarant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Funding a restuarant - Essay Example It is not a great idea to live without emergency money that is to help when things start going south. Banks tend not to support and savvy investors may also forsake the business owner unless they see him/her taking most of the risk. Risks tend to be like a barrier to stop people who are not sure of the way forward from committing an offense though, those ready to risk tend to attain their goals. One of the reasonable ways to have a source of income is by looking for external investors. This includes partners, friends and family, individuals searching for an investment, or the entire above combination. It is very good to make sure that every partner that is brought in your table are those that bring with them something that the group is missing. This is so since not every new partner comes because he/she has money that the business may need, some come because of their abilities and services that they will render to the company. This may include: amazing bookkeeping abilities, culinary prowess, a considerable amount of experience, marketing skills, host experience, efficiency expertise, knowledge of local dining, and operations skills (Fields, 2007). Bringing name recognition; it is not necessary for a partner to come with money or some skills or qualities. It can be a plausible reason to have a partner on board because of his popularity. This may include a popular or celebrity chef who is to show you how to perform behind the house activities or even attract customers because of his popularity and quality of service. Too many chefs spoil the soup. It is common knowledge that the more partners one has, the harder to align them. One should deal with decision-making controversies before he/she seeks for sources of financing, opening the restaurant’s doors or talking of the business plans. If the partners cannot come to an agreement at this, there are fair chances that any agreement will be reached and probably should not pursue the business together. If

Risk assessment and risk management associated with Carbon Capture and Literature review

Risk assessment and risk management associated with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) - Literature review Example This gas is produced from industries, vehicle emissions and households. Reduction in the amount of carbon dioxide released from industries would lead to significant cuts in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere thereby helping to control global warming and save the environment from the devastating impacts of global warming. One option explored in reducing the industrial carbon emission is the carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) (Gerard and Wilson, 2009, p. 1097). They describe carbon capture and sequestration as the process where carbon will be captured from industrial sources and it’s ultimately disposal it by storing it in underground geologic reservoirs rather than releasing it to the atmosphere (Stephens, 2006, p. 4). Carbon capture and storage is an attractive option as it will allow industries to continue using fossil fuels as it helps to stabilize the atmospheric levels of carbon emissions (Newmark, Friedmann & Carroll, 2010, p. 651). Moreover, CCS is both c ommercially viable and technologically feasible. Although CCS remains a viable option in helping stabilize the atmospheric carbon levels, it still has to demonstrate it is a feasible option in terms of cost and harmlessness to the environment ("Warning on carbon capture liability", 2007, p. 8). This means that it is possible to understand the risks associated with this technology and diverse strategies to manage this risk with include risks to the environment and human health and safety (Farret et al., 2011, p. 4193). The technology of carbon capture and storage is a system with four interrelated elements which should be studied in understanding the risks of the technology. These elements include capture, transport, injection and storage (Farret et al., 2011, p. 4193). ... ry, the public, regulatory agencies, customers, governments and in-plant personnel require that companies must demonstrate a commitment to control possibilities of incidents and hazards by conducting environmental, health and health related risks assessment. There are several methods that can be used in analysing risks involved such as Fault Tree Analysis technique (FTA), Life Cycle Assessment, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) among others. Some of this techniques have been used other industries such as nuclear, chemical and oil and gas industries but have not been incorporated in analysing the risks associated with CCS although the risks are similar.FTA is an example of these methodologies which have successfully been used in risks assessment in nuclear and chemical industries although it has not been incorporated in CCS. Purpose of the Study This paper will review available literature addressing the risks assessment sand risk management of carbon capture and storage. The main aim of this study is to quantify the main risks associated with CCS project by the use of FTA method. This will consequently be used by the insurance companies to calculate the probability of an undesired event, identify safety critical functions/components/phases and assess the effects of design changes. This will in-turn be used to enable them adjust their present terms and premium rates when insuring CCS projects against risks. Moreover, the findings of this paper will help regulators and policy makers to better tailor the legislations to address the risks associated with CCS. 2.0 Qualitative Risk Assessment "Environmental Risk Assessment’’ (2004, p. 1) explains that risk has varying meanings depending on different contexts. To a common man, risks imply the concept of probability and

Treatment of Homosexuality in Restoration and Enlightenment

Treatment of Homosexuality in Restoration and Enlightenment Homosexuality and the Problem of Identification in Restoration and Enlightenment England Restoration and Enlightenment England undeniably inherited, and to a large extent carried on the social, religious, and legal prejudices, or restrictions towards homosexual men that already existed for many centuries. The pronounced and extensive feelings against homosexuality in England which could be regarded as homophobic, as else where were strongly related to Christian theology and its strong influence upon prevailing social attitudes. There are several outright and clear condemnations of homosexuality in both the Old and New Testaments that influenced Christian theology to refute homosexuality as a deeply sinful and immoral act.[1] Outside of Judeo- Christian theology and ideology, homosexuality had not always been condemned or morally and socially vilified. Indeed in classical Greece and Rome being openly homosexual seemingly left men without detrimental social, religious, or legal consequences, which meant that few men had bothered to cover up their homosexual identities, fee lings, activities, and lifestyles. All that had changed once Christianity had become the dominant religion throughout Europe and taught that homosexuality was abnormal and sinful behaviour, and led to actions which were morally indefensible.[2] The Renaissance had rekindled interest in classical Greek and Roman art, literature, and sculpture, which in parts mentioned homosexuality as a normal and un-sinful part of everyday life. An unintended by product of the Renaissance had been the realisation that male homosexuality had not always been socially, or religiously taboo, and that it had not therefore been illegal in classical Greece or Rome. These earlier societies had not held homosexual men in disdain or made them social outcasts’ yet they were supposed to be immoral and degenerate compared to Christian societies. The realisation that only Judeo-Christian societies were so predominantly homophobic provided an impetus for homosexual men to alter their societies by arguing th at they were free to chose how they lived their lives and were not actually morally depraved. The initial moves to allow homosexual men to live openly started in Southern Europe before having an impact in Renaissance and Enlightenment England.[3] Arguably the Reformation disrupted the liberalising effects of the Renaissance, yet would eventually lead to increased levels of secularisation, and to the more liberal academic, social, and scientific attitudes of the Enlightenment. The more immediate consequences of the Reformation was increased attempts to rid Western European societies of false theology and cleanse it of immorality such as homosexuality, although the resulting conflicts between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism received the most attention amongst contemporaries and historians alike.[4] In England the onset of the Reformation had not altered the difficult situations that homosexual men faced if they wished to live their lives openly. That was due to the Protestants whether within the Church of England or the non-conformists outside of it being as opposed to male homosexuality as the Roman Catholic Church had always been. For the churches, homosexual thoughts or desires were just as sinful as actually performing homosexual acts. However if homosexual men refrained from acting upon their desires they would at least escape earthly punishment for their sins, which would be judged by God on their Judgement Day. Homosexual men either had to hide their sexual preferences or deny them completely. For they had virtually no alternative to concealing their orientation or gender identifications, and leading clandestine private lives. Hiding sexual orientation could make all the difference between been socially and economically successful or been disgraced, and possibly executed. Rumours of being homosexual could prove to be ruinous whether such allegations were proven or not. If actual homosexual acts could be proved to have taken place beyond doubt in an English Crown Court it would be fatal to those convicted. The high risks involved in leading a homosexual life even in secret helps to explain the lack of evidence that homosexual men left behind about themselves, as leaving information in writing or talking to the wrong people could leave to being convicted and then executed.[5] The concealment of homosexual identification was almost universally considered to be essential in England prior to the Restoration and Enlightenment eras, and remained highly important throughout those times. For men that held powerful social, economic, political, and religious positions being publicly identified or just rumoured to be a homosexual could prove to be disastrous for the maintenance of their position. Such rumours could reach the top of the political, social, and religious orders. During the 1590s until his death, even the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Whitgift came under suspicion of being sexually involved with another man. Whitgift was lucky enough to maintain the confidence of Elizabeth I as well as James I and therefore was not disgraced or removed from his post. Clergy had to be above suspicion of immoral sexual conduct whether homosexual or heterosexual in nature. The fact that England as a Protestant country allowed clerical marriage meant that the clergy could gratify heterosexual needs through marriage, whilst homosexual clergy if they existed had to preach the teachings of a religion that despised their sexuality.[6] The higher position a man held the greater the effort he would have put into hiding his homosexual orientation and identification. For instance, in the 14th century Edward II’s known homosexuality, when combined with his political ineptness contributed to his removal from the throne, and his subsequent murder. Kings were expected to be more masculine than any other men within society are, as they were expected to lead their countries during wartime, for kings to be suspected or known to be homosexual was detrimental for their chances of reigning over their countries successfully. Nearer to the Restoration and Enlightenment eras, the Duke of Buckingham was widely believed to have become the most influential and powerful royal favourite, not to mention the chief minister via his rumoured homosexual relationship with James I. Buckingham managed to form a similarly close relationship with Charles I, who seemed oblivious to the Duke’s unpopularity and incompetence. Rumours o f homosexuality did not damage Buckingham as much as his ineptness, yet they did not help improve his popularity either.[7] For homosexual men in Restoration and Enlightenment England, their social, political, and religious exclusion if their sexual orientation became public knowledge was attributable to the way in which homosexuality was regarded as being tantamount to sodomy by a majority of the heterosexual population. Sodomy was deemed to be as serious a sin as heresy and witchcraft, as the definition of sodomy incorporated all sexually deviant acts.[8] In earlier periods, males caught committing homosexual acts were usually trialed and punished by Church courts. The law was changed in 1534 in order for people accused of buggery to be trialed by Crown courts. The legislation of 1534 made it even more dangerous for male homosexuals to be known as being sexually active, or even to have their orientation known. The maximum punishment for any man caught and convicted for this crime was execution. Thus making buggery a crime punishable by death, in line with the sentences for heresy and witchcraft. The onl y difference was that the practice of executing heretics and alleged witches had gone by the end of the Enlightenment era, whereas the carrying out of homosexual activities was still a capital offence until 1861 and a crime until the 1960s[9]. Immediately prior to the Restoration period had been the Commonwealth, which had attempted to rigorously enforce all moral and religious values to meet with its fundamentalist Protestant ideology, including all heterosexual and homosexual sex outside of marriage. Whilst the Puritanical regime inspired by Oliver Cromwell had intended to cleanse the whole of Britain of its sins, it failed. During the Commonwealth period heterosexual adulterers as well as respectable Anglicans had to lead clandestine existences just like homosexuals and Roman Catholics had done for many decades.[10] Charles II’s return from exile ushered in the era of the Restoration, which brought a relaxation of the draconian moral codes of the Commonwealth, especially in the Royal Court. Despite his own immoral behaviour, Charles II only went as far as wanting religious toleration rather than officially supporting a relaxation of moral and sexual standards of behaviour. Even had Charles wished to improve the l egal position of homosexual men he would have not been prepared to face public and Parliamentary opposition to such plans.[11] Whilst the Restoration may have meant a more relaxed moral attitude at the Royal Court, there was no change in the legal position of men caught performing homosexual acts.[12] Concealment of homosexual identification or the protection of men in high social and religious positions was the best way to stay clear of prosecution and ultimately execution.[13] Living in towns and cities in general and in London in particular improved the chances of homosexual men not being caught, and leading a more fulfilling existence.[14] Homosexual men to an overwhelming extent publicly appeared to fit in with the gender role models during the Restoration and Enlightenment eras in England. As not conforming to conventional gender role models would have revealed their identity as homosexual men, many therefore decided to cover up their true identity to avoid persecution and their own personal disgrace. Homosexual men therefore, had to perform the gender roles expected of heterosexual men, such as being husbands, fathers and acting as heads of their households. Getting married and having children was the best means of concealing homosexual identification and removing suspicions of any sexual wrongdoing or immorality. Men of all social, economic and religious status were homosexuals, yet the higher their status the more they had to lose by revealing their sexual orientation. Self-preservation was presumably a greater motivation than self-expression or self-fulfilment. Although it must have made countless numbers of homo sexual men in Restoration and Enlightenment England the Reformation had weakened the hold of Christianity over society unknown to anybody at that time. The main long-term consequence of Protestantism was to increase the level of secularisation in England, although other social values reinforced prejudices towards homosexual men.[15] The Enlightenment continued the process of secularisation started by the Renaissance and only delayed by the Reformation, which slowly made English social and genders values more liberal and less repressive.[16] In many respects social prejudices against homosexual men outlasted the religious reasons for homosexuality being illegal in England in the first place. The fear of sodomy as an unnatural form of sexual behaviour persisted even as English society became increasingly secularised.[17] The treatment of homosexual men in Restoration and Enlightenment England was not the same throughout the country. London was a city in which homosexual men could attempt to be more open about their sexual orientation and worry less about fulfilling expected gender roles. As one of the biggest cities in the world, London was place in which homosexual men had an increased level of opportunities to be true to themselves, rather than outwardly conform to social and religious norms with regard to sexual conduct. Homosexual men that remained publicly unknown had to carry on living up to widespread masculine stereotypes.[18] These comments have to be qualified, as although London was a cosmopolitan centre where it was possible to lead different lifestyles that differed from the Christian and heterosexual norm. London was also the part of England in which the letter of the law could be enforced most vigorously, as it was the seat of government and Courts and magistrates would not want to be seen as unable to tackle criminal and immoral activities. As individuals homosexuals may have been able to lead homosexual lives with the protection of people in high places. However, at the end of the day it still remained sensible for homosexual men to hide their orientation as the legislation that could result in their conviction and execution remained upon the statute books.[19] For the majority of homosexual men in Restoration and Enlightenment England the opportunities to be readily identifiable as homosexuals were strictly limited and even when those chances were available it remained dangerous to take them. Some careers such as acting or singing gave a few homosexual men the chance to appear less masculine in public without raising undue suspicions of their sexual orientation. The majority of homosexual men were in the situation where they had to perform the social, economic, religious, or political functions that their position at birth had put them into. The majority of so cial, political, religious, and economic positions in Restoration and Enlightenment meant that all men had to perform their tasks in masculine ways. [20] Therefore, it could be concluded that the circumstances of the times made it very difficult for homosexual men to clearly allow themselves to be identified as such by their contemporaries in Restoration and Enlightenment England. It has also made it harder for modern historians to qualify and quantify the number and the experiences of homosexual men during that period. As was explored and evaluated above there were various reasons for homosexual men to conceal their sexual orientation from becoming general public knowledge, and to carry out any homosexual activities in secret, if at all. The overwhelmingly Christian nature of England before, during, and after the Restoration and Enlightenment eras had a very strong upon how homosexual men had to hide their sexual preferences from English society as a whole. Before the Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church had wide acceptance of its theology and opinions with regard to male homosexuality. The Roman Catholic Church had taught that all male homosexual activities should be regarded as deadly sins, which stemmed from all homosexual men having morally deviant thoughts that inevitably led to behaviour which needed to be severely punished, even to the point of executing homosexual men. Basically, Christian ideology was opposed to homosexuality on the grounds that it was an intolerable sin, just like heresy and witchcraft, which needed to be eradicated. The Reformation did not change the Christian perspective that male homosexuals should be punished as and when they were caught performing homosexual acts. Indeed the legislation that allowed the English Crown Courts to prosecute and execute people convicted of buggery was passed by the Reformation Parliament that enacted the break away of the English Church from the Papacy. The knowledge that being caught performing homosexual acts would result in execution meant that all men that performed such acts by and large did so in complete secrecy to avoid capital punishment. T he need for self preservation meant that the vast majority of homosexual men concealed their identities to stay alive and free, with the options to carry out homosexual activities in secret, or abstain from meeting other men altogether. To remain successfully hidden from people that might have them prosecuted the majority of homosexual men would chose not to leave written documentary evidence of their sexual activities or their feelings towards other men, as such material could easily have led to their conviction and subsequent execution. Homosexual men could have been from any social and economic background, as homosexuality seems to occur naturally within some men. After all it would hardly have been nurtured within Restoration and Enlightenment societies in England that overwhelmingly regarded homosexuality as being wrong and unnatural. Only limited numbers of homosexual men felt save enough not to hide their orientation, living in London, or having rich and powerful protectors w ere the factors that might allow some degree of openness. Bibliography Ashley M, (2002) A brief history of British Kings Queens, Robinson, London Betteridge T, (2002) Sodomy in Early Modern Europe, Manchester University Press, Manchester Fernandez-Arnesto, F Wilson, D (1996) Reformation Christianity and the World 1500-2000, Bantam Press, London Gardiner Wenborn (1995) The History Today Companion to British History, Collins and Brown Ltd, London Lenman, (2004) Chamber’s Dictionary of World History, Chambers, Edinburgh MacCulloch D, Reformation – Europe’s House Divided (2004) Penguin Books, London Schama, S (2001) A History of Britain The British Wars 1603-1776, BBC Worldwide, London 1 Footnotes [1] MacCulloch, 2004 p. 620 [2] MacCulloch, 2004 p. 620 [3] Betteridge, 2002 pp. 71 – 74 [4] Roberts, 1996 p. 235 [5] MacCulloch, 2004 p. 209 [6] MacCulloch, 2004 p. 209 [7] Betteridge, 2002 p. 46 [8] MacCulloch, 2004, p.622 [9] Gardiner Wenborn, 1995, p.388 [10] Schama, 2001, p.235 [11] Ashley, 2002, p.320 [12] Gardiner Wenborn, 1995, p.646 [13] Betteridge, 2002, pp.71-74 [14] MacCulloch, 2004, p.620 [15] Fernandez-Armesto Wilson, 1996, p.290 [16] Lenman, 2004, p.264 [17] Gardiner Wenborn, 1995, p.388 [18] Betteridge, 2002, pp. 71-74 [19] MacCulloch, 2004, p.622 [20] Betteridge, 2002 pp. 71-74

Music Censorship Essay examples -- essays research papers

Synthesis paper   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Racism, hate, sex, drugs, and profanity are among many things people encounter in everyday life whether they want to or not. The one thing that people do have control over is what kind of music they listen to and to take that right away from anyone would be more offensive than having the president of the United States of America get oral sex in the oval office, one of the most honored places in the country. People get more worked up over the things in life that mean nothing, than worrying about crucial issues. Our society can tolerate watching parents smack their children in *Wal-Mart more than they can stand to hear a curse word, or a sexual comment in a song. Music is an expression of the artist and should be treated as that. Censoring music is like telling Michelangelo he could not put the penis on â€Å"David†. The truth is that censoring music is an action that goes against the constitution of the United States of America and although some content may offend people, prohibition of freedom of expression violates the rights of more than those offended.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In a democracy, there is absolutely no chance to please everyone but taking away their rights as citizens will upset even more of the population. Under the first amendment of the constitution it states that congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom...